Causative agents 
- Mecistocirrus digitatus
- Bunostomum spp.
- Oesophagostomum spp.
- Trichostrongylus spp.
- Cooperia spp.
- Haemonchus spp.


Differential diagnosis 
- Bacterial chronic enteritis


1. History taking 
- Serious parasitosis in summer or early rainy season
- High morbidity but low mortality
- Previous grazing history and management
- Parasitic gastroenteritis in young stocks


2. Clinical examination 
- Severe anemia / chronic wasting disease
- Edema of lower jaw (bottle jaw)
- Weakness
- Retardation of growth

3. Fecal examination 
- Flotation technique
- Formalin-ether sedimentation
- Fecal culture for L3 identification


4. Necropsy 
- Detection of L3 (Infective stage) or adult worm


5. Histopathological observation 
- Lung hemorrhage and cell infiltration with lobular
  pneumonia
- Hyperplasia of the hematopoietic elements of
  bone marrow, myeloid metaplasia in the spleen
- Inflammation and fibrosis of the lamina propria of
  intestine


Control and treatment 
- Grazing management ie. pasture rotation
- Keep young stock indoor
- Appropriate stock density
- Control movement of stock over pasture
- Regular treatment with effective anthelmintics